INTRODUCTION OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER
A combustor is a component or area of a gas turbine, ramjet, or scramjet engine where combustion takes place. It is also known as a burner, combustion chamber or flame holder. In a gas turbine engine, the combustor or combustion chamber is fed high pressure air by the compression system. The combustor then heats this air at constant pressure. After heating, air passes from the combustor through the nozzle guide vanes to the turbine. In the case of a ramjet or scramjet engines, the air is directly fed to the nozzle
A combustor must contain and maintain stable combustion despite very high air flow rates. To do so combustors are carefully designed to first mix and ignite the air and fuel, and then mix in more air to complete the combustion process. Early gas turbine engines used a single chamber known as a can type combustor. Today three main configurations exist: can, annular and cannular (also referred to as can-annular tubo-annular). Afterburners are often considered another type of combustor.
Combustors play a crucial role in determining many of an engine's operating characteristics, such as fuel efficiency, levels of emissions and transient response (the response to changing conditions such as fuel flow and air speed).
1.1 Fundamentals
The objective of the combustor in a gas turbine is to add energy to the system to power the turbines, and produce a high velocity gas to exhaust through the nozzle in aircraft applications. As with any engineering challenge, accomplishing this requires balancing many design considerations, such as the following:
Completely combust the fuel. Otherwise, the engine wastes the unburnt fuel and creates unwanted emissions of unburnt hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (CO) and soot.
• Low pressure loss across the combustor. The turbine which the combustor feeds needs high pressure flow to operate efficiently.
• The flame (combustion) must be held (contained) inside of the combustor. If combustion happens further back in the engine, the turbine stages can easily
be overheated and damaged. Additionally, as turbine blades continue to grow more advanced and are able to withstand higher temperatures, the combustors are being designed to burn at higher temperatures and the parts of the combustor need to be designed to withstand those higher temperatures
It should be capable of relighting at high altitude in an event of engine flameout
Uniform exit temperature profile. If there are hot spots in the exit flow, the turbine may be subjected to thermal stress or other types of damage. Similarly, the temperature profile within the combustor should avoid hot spots, as those can damage or destroy a combustor from the inside.
Small physical size and weight. Space and weight is at a premium in aircraft applications, so a well designed combustor strives to be compact. Non-aircraft applications, like power generating gas turbines, are not as constrained by this factor
Wide range of operation. Most combustors must be able to operate with a variety of inlet pressures, temperatures, and mass flows. These factors change with both engine settings and environmental conditions (I.e., full throttle at low altitude can be very different from idle throttle at high altitude).
• Environmental emissions. There are strict regulations on aircraft emissions of pollutants like carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides, so combustors need to be designed to minimize those emissions.
1.1.1 History
Advancements in combustor technology focused on several distinct areas; emissions, operating range, and durability. Early jet engines produced large amounts of smoke, so early combustor advances, in the 1950s, were aimed at reducing the smoke produced by the engine. Once smoke was essentially eliminated, efforts turned in the 1970s to reducing other emissions, like unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The 1970s also saw improvement in combustor durability, as new manufacturing methods improved liner lifetime by nearly 100 times that of early liners. In the 1980s combustors began to improve their efficiency across the whole operating range; combustors tended to be highly efficient (99%) at full power, but that efficiency dropped off at lower settings. Development over that decade improved efficiencies at lower levels. The 1990s and 2000s saw a renewed focus on reducing emissions, particularly nitrogen oxides. Combustor technology is still being actively researched and advanced, and much modern research focuses on improving the same aspects.
1.1.2. Components of Combuster
Case
The case is the outer shell of the combustor, and is a fairly simple structure.
The casing generally requires little maintenance. The case is protected from thermal
loads by the air flowing in it, so thermal performance is of limited concern. However,
the casing serves as a pressure vessel that must withstand the difference between the
high pressures inside the combustor and the lower pressure outside. That mechanical
(rather than thermal) load is a driving design factor in the case.
The purpose of the diffuser is to slow the high speed, highly compressed, air from the compressor to a velocity optimal for the combustor. Reducing the velocity results in an unavoidable loss in total pressure, so one of the design challenges is to limit the loss of pressure as much as possible. Furthermore, the diffuser must be designed to limit the flow distortion as much as possible by avoiding flow effects like boundary layer separation. Like most other gas turbine engine components, the diffuser is designed to be as short and light as possible.
Liner
The liner contains the combustion process and introduces the various airflows into the combustion zone. The liner must be designed and built to withstand extended high temperature cycles. For that reason liners tend to be made from superalloys like Hastelloy X. Furthermore, even though high performance alloys are used, the liners must be cooled with air flow. Some combustors also make use of thermal barrier coatings. However, air cooling is still required. In general, there are two main types of liner cooling; film cooling and transpiration cooling. Film cooling works by injecting (by one of several methods) cool air from outside of the liner to just inside of the liner. This creates a thin film of cool air that protects the liner, reducing the temperature at the liner from around 1800 kelvins (K) to around 830 K, for example. The other type of liner cooling, transpiration cooling, is a more modern approach that uses a porous material for the liner. The porous liner allows a small amount of cooling air to pass through it, providing cooling benefits similar to film cooling. The two primary differences are in the resulting temperature profile of the liner and the amount of cooling air required. Transpiration cooling results in a much more even temperature profile, as the cooling air is uniformly introduced through pores. Film cooling air is generally introduced through slats or louvers, resulting in an uneven profile where it is cooler at the slat and warmer between the slats. More importantly, transpiration cooling uses much less cooling air (on the order of 10% of total airflow, rather than 20-50% for film cooling). Using less air for cooling allows more to be used for combustion, which is more and more important for high performance, high thrust engines.
Snout
The snout is an extension of the dome that acts as an air splitter, separating the primary air from the secondary air flows.
Dome / swirler
The dome and swirler are the part of the combustor that the primary air flows through as it enters the combustion zone. Their role is to generate turbulence in the flow to rapidly mix the air with fuel. Early combustors tended to use bluff body domes (rather than swirlers), which used a simple plate to create wake turbulence to mix the fuel and air. Most modern designs, however, are swirl stabilized. The swirler 5 establishes a local low pressure zone that forces some of the combustion products to recirculate, creating the high turbulence. However, the higher the turbulence, the higher the pressure loss will be for the combustor, so the dome and swirler must be carefully designed so as not to generate more turbulence than is needed to sufficiently mix the fuel and air.
Fuel injector
The fuel injector is responsible for introducing fuel to the combustion zone
and, along with the swirler , is responsible for mixing the fuel and air. There are four
primary types of fuel injectors; pressure-atomizing, air blast, vaporizing, and
premix/prevaporizing injectors. Pressure atomizing fuel injectors rely on high fuel
pressures (as much as 3,400 kilopascals (500 psi)) to atomizethe fuel. This type of
fuel injector has the advantage of being very simple, but it has several disadvantages.
The fuel system must be robust enough to withstand such high pressures, and the fuel
tends to be heterogeneously atomized, resulting in incomplete or uneven combustion
which has more pollutants and smoke.
The vaporizing fuel injector, the third type, is similar to the air blast injector in that primary air is mixed with the fuel as it is injected into the combustion zone. However, the fuel-air mixture travels through a tube within the combustion zone. Heat from the combustion zone is transferred to the fuel-air mixture, vaporizing some of 6 the fuel (mixing it better) before it is combusted. This method allows the fuel to be combusted with less thermal radiation, which helps protect the liner. However, the vaporizer tube may have serious durability problems with low fuel flow within it (the fuel inside of the tube protects the tube from the combustion heat).
The premixing/prevaporizing injectors work by mixing or vaporizing the fuel before it reaches the combustion zone. This method allows the fuel to be very uniformly mixed with the air, reducing emissions from the engine. One disadvantage of this method is that fuel may auto-ignite or otherwise combust before the fuel-air mixture reaches the combustion zone. If this happens the combustor can be seriously damaged.
Igniter
Most igniters in gas turbine applications are electrical spark igniters, similar to automotive spark plugs. The igniter needs to be in the combustion zone where the fuel and air are already mixed, but it needs to be far enough upstream so that it is not damaged by the combustion itself. Once the combustion is initially started by the igniter, it is self-sustaining and the igniter is no longer used. In can-annular and annular combustors, the flame can propagate from one combustion zone to another, so igniters are not needed at each one. In some systems ignition-assist techniques are used. One such method is oxygen injection, where oxygen is fed to the ignition area, helping the fuel easily combust. This is particularly useful in some aircraft applications where the engine may have to restart at high altitude.
1.1.3. Air flow paths
Primary air
This is the main combustion air. It is highly compressed air from the high pressure compressor (often decelerated via the diffuser) that is fed through the main
channels in the dome of the combustor and the first set of liner holes. This air is
mixed with fuel, and then combusted.
Intermediate air
Intermediate air is the air injected into the combustion zone through the
second set of liner holes (primary air goes through the first set). This air completes the
reaction processes, cooling the air down and diluting the high concentrations of
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2).
Dilution air
Dilution air is airflow injected through holes in the liner at the end of the
combustion chamber to help cool the air to before it reaches the turbine stages. The air
is carefully used to produce the uniform temperature profile desired in the combustor.
However, as turbine blade technology improves, allowing them to withstand higher
temperatures, dilution air is used less, allowing the use of more combustion air.
Cooling air
Cooling air is airflow that is injected through small holes in the liner to
generate a layer (film) of cool air to protect the liner from the combustion
temperatures. The implementation of cooling air has to be carefully designed so it
does not directly interact with the combustion air and process. In some cases, as much
as 50% of the inlet air is used as cooling air. There are several different methods of
injecting this cooling air, and the method can influence the temperature profile that
the liner is exposed to Liner.
1.2. Types combusters
Arrangement of can-type combustors for a gas turbine engine, looking axis on,
through the exhaust. The blue indicates cooling flow path, the orange indicates the
combustion product flow path.
1.2.1. Can type
Can combustors are self-contained cylindrical combustion chambers.
Each can has its own fuel injector, igniter, liner, and casing. The primary air from
the compressor is guided into each individual can, where it is decelerated, mixed
with fuel, and then ignited. The secondary air also comes from the compressor,
where it is fed outside of the liner (inside of which is where the combustion is
taking place). The secondary air is then fed, usually through slits in the liner, into
the combustion zone to cool the liner via thin film cooling.
In most applications, multiple cans are arranged around the central axis of the
engine, and their shared exhaust is fed to the turbine(s). Can type combustors were
most widely used in early gas turbine engines, owing to their ease of design and
testing (one can test a single can, rather than have to test the whole system). Can type
combustors are easy to maintain, as only a single can needs to be removed, rather than
the whole combustion section. Most modern gas turbine engines (particularly for
aircraft applications) do not use can combustors, as they often weigh more than
alternatives. Additionally, the pressure drop across the can is generally higher than
other combustors (on the order of 7%). Most modern engines that use can combustors
are turboshafts featuring centrifugal compressors.
1.2.2. Cannular type
The next type of combustor is the cannular combustor; the term is a
portmanteau of can annular. Like the can type combustor, can annular combustors
have discrete combustion zones contained in separate liners with their own fuel
injectors. Unlike the can combustor, all the combustion zones share a common ring
(annulus) casing. Each combustion zone no longer has to serve as a pressure vessel.
The combustion zones can also "communicate" with each other via liner holes or
connecting tubes that allow some air to flow circumferentially. The exit flow from the
cannular combustor generally has a more uniform temperature profile, which is better
for the turbine section. It also eliminates the need for each chamber to have its own
igniter. Once the fire is lit in one or two cans, it can easily spread to and ignite the
others. This type of combustor is also lighter than the can type, and has a lower
pressure drop (on the order of 6%). However, a cannular combustor can be more
difficult to maintain than a can combustor. An example of a gas turbine engine
utilizing a cannular combustor is the General Electric J79 The Pratt & Whitney JT8D
and the Rolls-Royce Tay turbofans use this type of combustor as well.
Annular combustor for a gas turbine engine, viewed axis on looking through
the exhaust. The small orange circles are the fuel injection nozzles.
The final, and most commonly used type of combustor is the fully annular
combustor. Annular combustors do away with the separate combustion zones and
simply have a continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus). There are many
advantages to annular combustors, including more uniform combustion, shorter size
(therefore lighter), and less surface area. Additionally, annular combustors tend to
have very uniform exit temperatures. They also have the lowest pressure drop of the
three designs (on the order of 5%). The annular design is also simpler, although
testing generally requires a full size test rig. An engine that uses an annular combustor
is the CFM International CFM56. Almost all of the modern gas turbine engines use
annular combustors; likewise, most combustor research and development focuses on
improving this type.
Double annular combustor
One variation on the standard annular combustor is the double annular
combustor (DAC). Like an annular combustor, the DAC is a continuous ring without
separate combustion zones around the radius. The difference is that the combustor has
two combustion zones around the ring; a pilot zone and a main zone. The pilot zone
acts like that of a single annular combustor, and is the only zone operating at low
power levels. At high power levels, the main zone is used as well, increasing air and
mass flow through the combustor. GE's implementation of this type of combustor
focuses on reducing NOx and CO2 emissions. A good diagram of a DAC is available
1.3. Emissions
One of the driving factors in modern gas turbine design is reducing emissions,
and the combustor is the primary contributor to a gas turbine's emissions. Generally
speaking, there are five major types of emissions from gas turbine engines: smoke,
carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (UHC), and
nitrogen oxides (NOx).
Smoke is primarily mitigated by more evenly mixing the fuel with air. As
discussed in the fuel injector section above, modern fuel injectors (such as airblast
fuel injectors) evenly atomize the fuel and eliminate local pockets of high fuel
concentration. Most modern engines use these types of fuel injectors and are
essentially smokeless.
Carbon dioxide is a product of the combustion process, and it is primarily
mitigated by reducing fuel usage. On average, 1 kg of jet fuel burned produces 3.2 kg
of CO2. Carbon dioxide emissions will continue to drop as manufacturers make gas
turbine engines more efficient.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are
highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and
UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all
the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which
is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation,
a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for
UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions.
Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is
eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which
consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the
combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high
pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time
(essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber).
12
Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone.
However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most
consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in
general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact
means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several
methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
Unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions are highly related. UHCs are essentially fuel that was not completely combusted, and UHCs are mostly produced at low power levels (where the engine is not burning all the fuel). Much of the UHC content reacts and forms CO within the combustor, which is why the two types of emissions are heavily related. As a result of this close relation, a combustor that is well optimized for CO emissions is inherently well optimized for UHC emissions, so most design work focuses on CO emissions. Carbon monoxide is an intermediate product of combustion, and it is eliminated by oxidation. CO and OH react to form CO2 and H. This process, which consumes the CO, requires a relatively long time ("relatively" is used because the combustion process happens incredibly quickly), high temperatures, and high pressures. This fact means that a low CO combustor has a long residence time (essentially the amount of time the gases are in the combustion chamber). 12 Like CO, Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced in the combustion zone. However, unlike CO, it is most produced during the conditions that CO is most consumed (high temperature, high pressure, long residence time). This means that, in general, reducing CO emissions results in an increase in NOx and vice versa. This fact means that most successful emission reductions require the combination of several methods.
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